To put this into context, 33 million tonnes of carbon dioxide is equivalent to:

· the total emissions of Jordan in 2024

· the annual emissions of 7.6 million petrol cars

· the total carbon uptake by 33.1 million acres of forests in a year.

Published in the journal One Earth, the study, involving researchers from Lancaster University and led by Queen Mary University of London, provides a comprehensive analysis of emissions linked to military activity, infrastructure development and post-conflict reconstruction. The research builds on earlier work examining emissions during the first months of the conflict.

The researchers found that – in addition to the cost to human life - emissions from active military operations alone exceeded 1.3 million tonnes of CO₂e, including emissions associated with artillery, rockets and other military equipment.

The analysis also considers emissions linked to the construction of defensive infrastructure and the substantial carbon footprint associated with rebuilding damaged roads, buildings and other essential infrastructure following the conflict.

Dr Benjamin Neimark from Queen Mary University of London, lead author of the study, said: “Armed conflicts cause immense humanitarian and economic harm, but their environmental consequences are rarely quantified. Our research shows that war can generate substantial greenhouse gas emissions, from active military operations through to the rebuilding that follows.”

Dr Frederick Otu-Larbi co-author from Lancaster University and the University of Energy and Natural Resources in Ghana said: “Understanding the environmental impacts of conflict is essential if we are to fully account for the drivers of climate change. Greater transparency around military emissions will help ensure these impacts are no longer overlooked.”

Dr Reuben Larbi, co-author from Lancaster University, said: “The environmental cost of conflict is immense and overlooked. By quantifying its carbon emissions, we make the invisible visible and highlight the urgent need for holistic and multi-sectoral decarbonisation efforts.”

The researchers note that military emissions are largely excluded from international climate reporting frameworks, meaning the environmental impact of warfare is often absent from global climate accounting.

The study calls for greater transparency in the reporting of military emissions through international mechanisms such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The research was led by Queen Mary University of London and conducted in collaboration with researchers from Lancaster University, the University of Energy and Natural Resources in Ghana, the Climate and Community Project, the Conflict and Environment Observatory, and the Initiative on GHG Accounting of War.